TLDR;
This lecture, the first in a series on pandemics in history, explores the Black Death and subsequent plague waves in Europe from 1347 to 1800. It aims to deepen understanding of plague sufferers' experiences, examine the reasoning behind plague explanations and treatments, and consider disease as a social and knowledge-based phenomenon. The lecture also touches on the public health measures that emerged during this period and their impact on society.
- The Black Death had distinct symptoms and a rapid, often lethal, progression.
- Plague was seen as a universal killer, striking all members of society.
- The inexplicable nature of the plague led to terror and social devastation.
- Medical explanations centered on humoral imbalances caused by corrupted air.
- Public health measures like quarantine and cordons sanitaires marked a shift towards state intervention in health.
Introduction to the Series and the Graham School [0:01]
Emily Lin, interim dean of the Graham School, introduces the "Pandemics in History" series, noting its relevance to the current COVID-19 pandemic. The Graham School connects the world to the University of Chicago by offering various programs, including professional degrees, certificate programs, and open courses. The school emphasizes rigorous discussion and engagement, even in remote learning environments. Lin acknowledges the grim historical moment due to the COVID-19 pandemic and thanks frontline workers for their service. She introduces Professor Michael Rossi, who will discuss the history of pandemics.
Webinar Logistics [5:08]
Zoe Eisenman, Graham's director of academics, explains the webinar format. Participants will be unable to unmute their microphones or use the chat function, but they can ask questions via the Q&A box. Questions will be answered during pauses in the lecture and at the end of the talk.
Scenes of Plague and Introduction to the Topic [6:28]
Professor Michael Rossi expresses gratitude to the audience and those who helped organize the lecture. He cautions that the session will include vivid and potentially disturbing images. Rossi references accounts from Constantinople (1347) and Venice, as well as Boccaccio's Decameron, to illustrate the sudden and devastating impact of the bubonic plague. He notes that while plague is now treatable with antibiotics, it was a source of gothic horror in the past. The lecture aims to understand the experiences of plague sufferers, the reasoning behind explanations of plague, and disease as a social and knowledge-based phenomenon.
The Experience of Plague [12:02]
Rossi discusses the experiences of people during the Black Death in the 14th century, emphasizing that they were astute observers. Plague had distinct symptoms: fevers, chills, pain, nausea, and buboes (painful boils). The disease progressed rapidly, leading to bleeding, vomiting blood, subcutaneous bleeding, and decay of extremities. Death often occurred within three to five days. Commentators noted that plague affected all members of society equally, unlike other diseases that primarily affected the poor, elderly, or very young. The social devastation included cities grinding to a halt and too few living to bury the dead.
The Universality and Social Devastation of Plague [14:40]
The lecture continues to describe how plague killed all members of society equally. The Triumph of Death and Dance Macabre paintings illustrate the universality of plague, depicting death claiming people from all social strata. Accounts from the period emphasize the social devastation, with cities grinding to a halt and bodies piling up. Those who remained lived in fear, with doctors, clergy, and families rejecting one another. The terror of plague stemmed from its inexplicable nature, appearing to strike everywhere indiscriminately and without reason, resembling the end of the world.
First Q&A Break [23:13]
Zoe Eisenman moderates a Q&A session. Karen Walker asks why the figures representing death in the Danse Macabre painting are black, to which Rossi responds that they are meant to depict corpses in states of decay. Another question asks how soon people realized it was a global pandemic; Rossi explains that there was a sense of spreading early on, with people understanding that ships carrying plague could infect communities.
Reasons and Explanations of Plague [25:36]
Rossi transitions to discussing how people made sense of the plague. He explains that in Orthodox scholarly medicine, there was no concept of contagion. Instead, health and disease were believed to be regulated by the balance of four humors: yellow bile, black bile, phlegm, and blood. An imbalance of these humors was thought to cause disease. Plague doctors believed that a bad conjunction of stars and planets corrupted the atmosphere, creating poisonous air that unbalanced the humors.
Medical and Non-Medical Responses to Plague [29:04]
To combat plague, Orthodox medical approaches included lancing buboes to release corrupt humors and bloodletting. Another approach was to burn fragrant substances to improve the atmosphere. However, these methods were often ineffective. As a result, some physicians recognized that plague was passed from person to person. This led to the development of plague suits worn by doctors, made of waxed cloth and beaks stuffed with fragrant substances, as protection against contagious air. Non-medical remedies included fleeing and appealing to God's mercy through repentance, flagellation, and prayer to saints like St. Sebastian and St. Roch. Jewish communities were often targeted and persecuted as scapegoats.
Second Q&A Break [40:27]
Shelley Michel asks if people with certain humors were more susceptible to contamination, to which Rossi responds that humoral disposition could explain why some people got sick while others didn't. An anonymous person asks if plague suits were effective, and Rossi answers that there's no way to tell, but they often seemed to be viewed with ridicule. Another question asks if medical practices were helpful at all, despite misconceptions about the plague's causes, which leads into the next section.
Efficacy and Public Health Measures [43:38]
Rossi discusses the concept of efficacy, arguing that it encompasses not only cure rates but also systems of explanation and understanding. In the face of recurrent plague episodes, communities struggled to make sense of the disease, leading to the emergence of public health measures. Examples from London in 1641 include mandating confinement for those suspected of having plague, fumigating streets, and granting broad police powers to health magistrates. Other measures included burning possessions of the dead, confining victims to pest houses, and establishing lazarettos for quarantine. The most enduring measure was the imposition of quarantine, which medical historians argue gave humans a measure of control over pandemic illness. These public health measures entailed a new understanding of the relationship between disease and society, calling upon greater powers of the state to ensure the health of populations.
Public Health Interventions and the End of an Era [49:09]
The lecture details public health interventions like cordons sanitaires and health passes, which restricted movement to combat plague transmission. These measures, while not based on new medical knowledge, marked a shift towards state authority regulating individual and community health. Plague, in this sense, marked the end of one world and the beginning of another, with the state playing a larger role in public health. This idea expanded in the 17th and 18th centuries, becoming a matter of national and international importance, especially during the cholera years of the 19th century.
Final Q&A and Concluding Remarks [53:22]
Zoe Eisenman moderates a final Q&A session, addressing questions about the plague's impact on population, the connection between rats and fleas, and the accuracy of art in reflecting the reality of the Black Death. Rossi discusses the economic effects of the plague, including changes in labor relations and wage systems. He also touches on the persecution of Jewish communities and the role of saints in offering care and compassion. The session concludes with a discussion of the Boccaccio reading and the lecturer's optimism about society's capacity to manage pandemics. Emily Lin thanks everyone for attending and encourages enrollment in future lectures.
