TLDR;
The Industrial Revolution, spanning roughly from 1760 to 1840, marked a pivotal shift from manual labour to mechanised manufacturing, driven by innovations in steam power, iron production, and coal usage. Originating in Great Britain, it spread globally, transforming economies and societies. Key advancements included the development of steam engines, revolutionising industries like textiles and mining, and the rise of factories. While it led to increased production and improved living standards for some, it also brought social challenges such as poor working conditions and income inequality.
- Shift from manual labour to mechanised manufacturing.
- Innovations in steam power, iron production, and coal usage.
- Originating in Great Britain, it spread globally.
The Dawn of the Industrial Revolution [0:07]
The Industrial Revolution, a transformative period from 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840, saw a shift from hand-made goods to machine-based manufacturing. This evolution included improved water power, new chemical manufacturing processes, innovative iron production methods, the use of steam power, advancements in machine tools, and the growth of factories. The fabric industry led the way in employment and was the first to adopt modern manufacturing techniques. Originating in the United Kingdom, the revolution continued from 1815 into the next century. Steam power was a key breakthrough, initially used to pump water from English mines and later adapted for textile production, mining, and iron smelting. The early 19th century saw the invention of railroads and steamboats, significantly reducing travel times. Steam, iron, and coal were the three main pillars of this industrial age, with coal powering steam engines and iron used to construct machines.
The Enduring Impact and Spread [2:18]
The changes initiated during the Industrial Revolution continue to shape modern economies. Originating thousands of years ago with the Iron Age, the revolution significantly altered daily life, leading to increased average income and population growth. While some economists argue that living standards improved immediately, others believe progress was more evident in the late 19th and 20th centuries. Coinciding with an agricultural revolution in Britain, textile production mechanised and spread from Great Britain to Europe, with France becoming a key centre. Industrialisation rapidly expanded worldwide, although historians debate the exact start and end dates and the pace of social and economic change. Before the Industrial Revolution, GDP per capita was relatively stable, but capitalist economies experienced significant per capita economic growth during this period. The beginning of the Industrial Revolution is considered one of the most significant events in human history since the domestication of plants and animals. The transition from the first to the Second Industrial Revolution occurred between 1840 and 1870, marked by rapid technological and economic progress, including steam transport and mass production.
Great Britain Leads the Way [4:52]
While many countries participated in the Industrial Revolution, it began in Great Britain before spreading to America, Europe, and the rest of the world. By the 18th century, Britain had become a powerful and wealthy nation through overseas trade. Victories in wars, such as the Seven Years' War, allowed Britain to expand its control over numerous colonies. However, Britain faced challenges, including a rapidly growing population that led to shortages of wood and cloth. Coal replaced wood for cooking, heating, and smelting, leading to extensive mining operations. As mines deepened, water seepage became a problem, which was solved by the invention of steam-powered pumps. Initially, wood was used to smelt iron, but it was later replaced by coal. Coke, derived from heating soft coal, became the fuel for smelting iron, further expanding coal mining. England had a long history of wool trade, but the growing population demanded more clothes, leading to the adoption of new cloth production machines. The introduction of cotton from Egypt and India created a need for mass production, which the old spinning wheel system could not meet. This demand for quantity and quality led to the establishment of factories.
Revolution in Metal Industry [8:06]
The replacement of wood with coal as fuel triggered a significant revolution in the metal industries. Coal required less labour to mine and was abundant. In 1678, Sir Clement Clerke and other inventors began using coal in reverberatory furnaces called cupolas, which controlled flames on a charcoal, coke, and ore mixture to reduce oxide to metal. This method prevented impurities from combining with the metal and was later applied to smelt lead and copper. In 1709, Abraham Darby successfully used coke to fuel his blast furnaces at Coalbrookdale, producing cast-iron products like kettles and pots. Darby's patented casting method allowed him to produce thinner and cheaper pots than his competitors. His sons expanded the business, producing bar iron in the mid-1750s. Coke pig iron became cheaper than charcoal pig iron, leading to its use in new structures like the Iron Bridge of 1778. New processes, such as Henry Cort's puddling process, improved iron production. Cort developed the rolling process in 1783 and the puddling process in 1784. Rolling replaced hammering, making wrought iron consolidation 15 times faster. Puddling involved decarburising pig iron using slow oxidation and manual stirring, resulting in higher melting point iron blobs that were removed by the puddler.
Innovations and the Rise of Steel [11:24]
Puddling remained in use until the 19th century, when steel gradually replaced iron. The puddling process could not be mechanised due to the need for human skill in sensing the iron blobs. Until the mid-17th century, British iron manufacturers imported significant quantities of iron, mainly from Sweden and Russia. However, by 1785, they stopped importing iron due to advancements in iron-making technology and began exporting wrought iron products and bar iron. A vital development was James Beaumont Neilson's hot blast, patented in 1827, which saved energy in pig iron production. By preheating combustion air using waste exhaust heat, the fuel required to make pig iron decreased significantly. Hot blast maintained high furnace temperatures, increasing their capacity. Less coke or coal usage meant fewer impurities in the pig iron, allowing for the use of lower-quality coal. By the end of the 19th century, transportation costs had fallen extensively. Twenty years before the Industrial Revolution, steel production improved, leading to its use in products like springs and cutting-edge tools. In the 1740s, Benjamin Huntsman developed a crucible steel technique using blister steel as raw material. Inexpensive steel and iron aided industries like nails, wire, hinges, and hardware. Improvements in machine tools facilitated working with iron, leading to its use in machines and engines.
Revolution in the Textiles [13:52]
England spearheaded the Industrial Revolution due to factors such as supportive parliamentarians, abundant raw materials like coal and iron ore, cheap labour, and financial institutions that provided capital for purchasing steam engines and constructing factories. The textile industry was a key driver of the Industrial Revolution. The introduction of cotton in the 1600s transformed cotton thread and material production. In 1733, John Kay invented the flying shuttle, enabling a single person to operate a handloom, though it faced initial resistance due to fears of unemployment. In 1765, James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny, which could spin eight threads at a time, later patented in 1770. The number of threads a spinning machine could produce increased to 100, but cloth workers were initially resistant. By 1778, around 20,000 spinning jennies were in use, significantly reducing the time spent spinning thread and yarn.
Innovations in Textile Production [17:05]
Lancashire was home to many inventors, including Richard Arkwright, who patented the water-frame in 1769. Powered by water, these rollers and spindles produced coarse but strong thread. Samuel Crompton combined Hargreaves' spinning jenny and Arkwright's water-frame to create the spinning mule, producing fine and strong cotton thread. These machines revolutionised the textile industry, increasing English thread production from 8 million pounds in 1770 to 37 million pounds by 1790. By 1850, English weavers were spinning around 250 million pounds of cotton. Edmund Cartwright, anticipating increased demand for spun cotton, invented a power loom in 1784, patented in 1785. However, his factories were destroyed by workers. Samuel Horrocks patented a better loom in 1813, and Richard Roberts improved it in 1822, leading to mass production by Roberts, Hill & Co. Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin, which significantly eased seed removal, increasing cotton supply.
The Impact of Textile Innovations [19:14]
Inventors improved spinning processes, increasing yarn supply and supplementing the weaving industry. Richard Arkwright, while credited with many creations, was primarily an entrepreneur who fostered inventors, patented concepts, funded creativities, and sheltered machines. He established a cotton mill that integrated all production processes under one roof and mechanised the cotton industry using horse and water power. In the 19th century, Manchester was known as Cottonopolis due to its numerous textile industries.
Revolution in Steam Power [20:14]
The exploitation of steam power primarily drove the Industrialisation age. The power of steam was understood even in ancient times. In A.D. 60, Hero of Alexandria created the aeolipile, a rudimentary device that used steam to rotate a metal sphere. Later, steam devices were used to pump water from mines, addressing the increased demands for coal. Thomas Savery invented a low-power steam engine in 1698, branded as the Miner's Friend, which produced around one horsepower and was used for water-related works and coal mines. While cost-effective for minor tasks, Savery's pump was prone to boiler explosions for larger horsepower ranges.
Newcomen and Watt's Innovations [22:23]
Thomas Newcomen built his piston steam engine in 1712, which was used in deep mines blocked by water. These engines, kept on the surface, were large, required significant investment, and produced 5 horsepower. Despite being inefficient by modern standards, they facilitated deep coal mining. Newcomen's engines were easy to maintain and dependable, serving coal mines until the early 19th century. By the time Newcomen died, his work had spread to Hungary, Austria, Sweden, and Germany. By 1733, 110 engines had been built, 14 of which were abroad. John Smeaton later built many large and improved engines, bringing the total to 1,454 by 1800. James Watt introduced essential variations in operating principles. Matthew Boulton perfected his steam engine by 1778, incorporating enhancements such as a sealed cylinder, a separate condenser, and a steam jacket.
Watt's Improved Steam Engine [24:29]
The separate condenser removed the need for cooling water in the cylinder, and the steam jacket prevented steam condensation, improving the engine's competence. Watt's and Boulton's improved steam engine used only 20 to 25 percent as much coal per horsepower per hour compared to Newcomen's engine. Watts and Boulton manufactured these engines in the Soho Foundry, established in 1795. By 1800, Watt's steam engine could directly drive rotary machinery in mills and factories, transforming into a double-acting rotative type. Boulton & Watts had made 496 engines, serving blast furnaces, driving pumps, and powering mill machinery, mostly producing 5 to 10 horsepower. Metal machinery tools played a crucial role in making these engines. Engine planning, milling, lathe, and shaping machines, powered by these engines, enabled accurate cutting of metal parts. In the early 19th century, Richard Trevithick and Oliver Evans built non-condensing high-pressure steam engines, suitable for rail locomotives, mobile roads, and steam boats.
Revolution in Machine Tools [26:43]
The development of machines increasingly required machinery to cut metal parts. Small tools were initially developed by watch and instrument repairers. Before machine tools, hand tools like files, scrapers, hammers, chisels, and saws were used. Metal was scarcely used, and wood products were prone to splitting. With the revolution, metal frames and parts became popular but were expensive due to the labour required for meticulousness. The first significant machine tool was the cylinder boring machine, used to bore large-diameter cylinders on steam engines, followed by planning, shaping, and milling machines. In the early 19th century, Joseph Bramah patented a lathe similar to a slide rest lathe and hired Henry Maudslay to produce high-security metal locks. Maudslay perfected the slide rest lathe, which could cut screws with various thread pitches using variable gears. Maudslay later established his own shop and trained many men on this machine.
Revolution in Chemicals [28:19]
John Roebuck is credited with producing the first chemical sulphuric acid using the lead chamber process in 1746. He replaced expensive glass containers with lead compartments, producing large quantities of around 100 pounds at a time. Nicholas Leblanc produced alkali and sodium carbonate in 1791, introducing the Leblanc process, which reacted sodium chloride with sulphuric acid to produce hydrochloric acid and sodium sulphate. Sodium carbonate had many uses in industries like soap, paper, textile, and glass. Sulphuric acid was used to remove rust from iron and bleach clothes. In 1800, Charles Tennant improved the production of bleaching powder based on Claude Louis's discoveries, reducing the process from months to days. His factory in North Glasgow became the largest chemical factory in the world. In the 1860s, Germans took the lead in dye production, attracting chemists from around the world. The British did not establish universities as an alternative but employed German chemists.
Revolution in Other Trades [29:53]
Joseph Aspdin patented portland cement in 1824, used to construct the London sewerage system and the Thames tunnel. William Murdoch introduced gas lighting, with the first gas lighting utilities set up in London between 1812 and 1820, extending factory operating hours. Nicholas Louis Robert invented the Fourdrinier machine, which made continuous sheets of paper, a method still used today. In 1832, Lucas and William Chance (Chance Brothers) first used the cylinder process to make glass sheets, aiding interior planning. Key agricultural machines included the Dutch plough, threshing machine, and seed drill. Jethro Tull invented a better seed drill in 1701, and Joseph Foljambe Rotherham made the first marketable plough in 1730. Andrew Meikle made the threshing machine in 1784, which caused riots due to labour displacement, leading to the Swing Riots.
Transportation and Social Effects [31:50]
The Industrial Revolution improved transportation in Britain, including turnpike roads, railway lines, waterways, and canals, facilitating the speedy and cheaper movement of products and ideas. The Bridgewater Canal, built in the 18th century, was followed by the Thames and Severn Canal and the Leeds and Liverpool Canal. The Manchester Ship Canal, inaugurated in 1894, was the largest canal in the world. Turnpike trusts maintained roads after 1720, with John McAdam, Thomas Telford, and John Metcalf engineering improvements. The first steam-run public railways began in 1825 with the Stockton and Darlington Railway, followed by the Liverpool and Manchester Railways in 1830. The hot blast development in 1829 reduced fuel intake for iron making, accelerating railway development. The Industrial Revolution had mixed social effects. While long-term changes were positive, many suffered from the impact of modern machinery. Cottage industries declined, and factory labourers were poorly paid. Living standards improved only in the late 1780s.
Social Disparities and Health [34:16]
The poorer class experienced declines in living standards, with wages increasing only by 15% in the late 1780s. Previously, hunger and malnutrition were common, with an average life expectancy of 35 years. The Industrial Revolution decreased food prices, but people lived in extremes, with factory owners in beautiful houses and labourers in unsanitary conditions. Overcrowded rooms and poor sanitation led to diseases like typhoid and cholera, especially among children. Conditions improved in the 19th century with health regulations.
Industrialisation Beyond the United Kingdom [35:23]
Following Britain, Continental Europe adopted inventions and creations, with the Ruhr Valley in Westphalia nicknamed "Miniature England." Some British inventions were adapted to local resources. Mining areas developed in Liege and Charleroi, and John Cockerill set up a factory in Seraing with integrated production and supply processes. Developments in iron making occurred in Sambre, Haine, and Meuse Valleys. The revolution was traditional and mainly affected areas near coal mining and iron making.
Industrialisation in America, Germany, Sweden and Japan [36:31]
America remained an agricultural economy, relying on railways, roads, waterways, and canals to move products. The invention of the cotton gin and interchangeable parts spurred industrial revolution. Oliver Evans made an automatic four mill requiring no labour. In 1787, Cabot Brothers and Thomas Somers founded the Beverly Cotton Manufactory. The American Industrial Revolution was based on the Blackstone River, with 1100 mills functioning in the valley. In 1854, Waltham Watch Company industrialised the watch industry. Samuel Slater, who mastered skills in Derbyshire, England, set up the Slater Mill in 1793, later owning 13 textile mills. Germans excelled in chemistry, attracting students worldwide to study dye production. Despite initial disunity, they quickly developed roads and railways. Sweden experienced simultaneous agricultural and industrial revolutions, with farmers engaging in proto-industrialisation during winters. The industrial revolution focused on local markets, including paper making, textiles, mechanical engineering, and power utilities. Free trade and exports of wood, steel, and crops boosted the country. Leaders from the Meiji period initiated an Industrial Revolution in Japan in 1870. They sent youngsters to Europe and the United States and employed over 3,000 western experts. The Iwakura Mission was a breakthrough, and Japan quickly caught up. In 1882, the Bank of Japan was founded, and taxes were used to set up textile factories and model steel. Japan's first modern industries were in textiles, including cotton and silk.
Capitalism, Socialism and Conclusion [40:15]
The Industrial Revolution saw the development of modern machines, tools, and techniques. Historians have varied opinions on the Industrial Revolution. Capitalism emerged as science boomed, upgrading society. Machines eased work and provided jobs, increasing wealth. Socialism arose as an evaluation of capitalism. Karl Marx divided society into the bourgeoisie, who owned the means of production, and the proletariat, who laboured in factories. He viewed industrialisation as a dialectical development of feudal economic modes, essential for capitalism's growth, which he saw as a predecessor to socialism and communism. The Industrial Revolution was a significant era, and mankind continues to evolve with its basic principles of invention.